Languages are made up of two things: the usage of words, and the construction of words. The usage of words is a very complicated little beast, and I covered it very lightly in the introduction of this "series", found here.
The more overlooked of these two concepts is decidedly the second. The construction of words is not a very intriguing question. Either that, or you consider it hard and have no idea how to begin. So, let us first consult English - it is the one ground that I am positive you have some familiarity with, and familiar ground is essential for understanding these concepts.
English's syllable structure is more or less C(C)(C)V(V)(C)(C)(C) ("C" stands for Consonant, "V" stands for Vowel, here). Strengths is an excellent example - it has three separate consonants (S, then T, then R) then a vowel, (e), then three more consonants (NG, then TH, then S). Truant shows how English can have more than one vowel in a syllable, as well. In this, English is either the flat-out Most Complicated Syllable award-winner, or very nearly so. On the other side of the spectrum, there are some languages whose syllable structures are literally (C)V (the Meso-american Nahuatl, for instance). Considering syllable-structure, even for a brief moment, can help flesh out the language. Some languages, I should also note, only allow specific sounds in slots - Japanese features the (C)(y,w)V structure, if I recall correctly. Go nuts with this! A particularly notable syllable structure will mean that the language always has a slightly alien feel, because the sounds it allows aren't allowed by English. For instance, the name "Ndraan" has an odd feel because "N"s aren't allowed there for most languages (the exceptions I know of being exclusively African, in this case).
English's sound-set (aka, its "phonology") features a large number of sounds of very differing Places and Manners. "T" features the same Manner as "K", merely a different Place. "R" features the same place as "T", merely in a different Manner. This is one place where the International Phonetic Alphabet is invaluable in creating a language. A good language's phonology will only have sounds which are similar (in whatever possible way) to at least two other sounds, preferably more. If a language has the sounds M,N,P,B,T,D,F,V,θ, and ð, (those last two being the two different forms of the English "TH") it will simply Not Have the French "R" (IPA ʀ) - there is no sound it shares either Place with or Manner with. It could be a more normal Trilled R (IPA r), since there are multiple other consonants in that same Place. Alternatively it could be another "stop" (like the P, T, and K, and their voiced compatriots), the Arabic Q (IPA q). But if it is "floating" off to the side of the chart with no relation to any other sound, then the sound has no reason for being that far out of the way - it could easily be crammed in with the rest of the consonants with plenty of distinction. Consonants are only happy when they need to be fairly exact. Vowels are slightly different, in that there are three levels of difference (forwardness, closedness, and roundedness), and they want to be spread out over the entire range (if still more or less relatable to the other vowels, and even if the front vowels tend to be unrounded and the back ones rounded). Play with the relative numbers of these, too. Some languages have stupid numbers of vowels and very few consonants. Some of them have only two vowels and 40-odd consonants. Some (like English) are fairly high in both counts. A few (Hawai'ian, notably) are very low in both counts.
Phonologies are weird little things. The sheer number of different sounds the human mouth can make is astounding, and almost every single one has been used in some language, somewhere. This is an excellent place to go a little bit crazy, and is probably one of the most accessible parts of properly Scientific Linguistics. Wikipedia can give a very good idea of what a given sound sounds like, and how to make it, and how often it is found in languages. Armed with this alone, you can do all sorts of cool things. Phonologies form the core of every single language, no matter how well-planned or detailed they may be. Without a well-planned phonology, a language will be left feeling lacking. But, armed with a phonology, even a simple naming language can shine.
gʊd lʌk, fɹεndz, and nεvεɹ stɔp ləɹnɪŋ!
Oh, sorry - IPA went into overdrive. *headdesk*
Good luck, friends, and never stop learning!
~Theoden
Terminology:
"Place" is more commonly called "Place of Articulation" with consonants - these can range from "bilabial" (two-lipped, i.e., lip-only), all the way to "glottal" (English's "H" is a Glottal Fricative, for example).
"Manner" is more commonly called "Manner of Articulation", which can range from Nasal (think M, N, and NG), through the Stops or Plosives (T, K, and the elusive Glottal Stop), and into the Trills and Approximants, and not least, the Laterals (like L, and the Welsh "LL"). On top of that, there is also the distinction of "Voicing", which is the difference between P, and B; T, and D; TH, and, well... TH (though that second one is sometimes written as "DH" in low-level phonologic texts (or at least, those which do not use IPA). Tolkien did it like that, in his appendices to the Lord of the Rings).
This is the land of weird terminology, though, and I'm sure I'm missing something important - so post questions in the comments below! Questions mean learning, and if I'm managing to teach someone here, I'll be happy. :⟩
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